East Anglia
Includes – Norfolk and Suffolk

Although the two counties of Norfolk and Suffolk were originally areas of settlement of two separate groups of Anglian peoples – the North Folk and the South Folk – they soon became united into a single kingdom of the East Angles. This had a natural protection from its aggressive and powerful neighbour, Mercia, by intervening fenland. Although there was occasional inroads from Mercia, more perhaps of the nature of raids than actual invasions, and at one period a vague kind of suzerainty was exercised by Mercia, East Anglia was able to develop as a separate kingdom, politically, culturally and ecclesiastically.

Its greatest King, the Heathen Radwald, 616-24 or 625, was named by Bede as the third Bretwalda of England. He was succeeded by his step-son, Sigebert, who had been exiled by Radwald and brought up and educated as a Christian in the monastery at Luxeuil in Burgundy. Sigebert introduced Christianity among his people and 630 approx invited Felix, a Burgundian, to be the first bishop of the East Angles.

Felix had his seat at Dunwich, near the south-east coast of what is now Suffolk. Later, in 671, Archbishop Theodore split the diocese into two, leaving the Dunwich see to control Suffolk and founding another at North Elmham, some 17 miles north-west of Norwich, for Norfolk. The great Danish invasions began in East Anglia in 865 and from that time till the early tenth century the area became an independent Danish kingdom, with a Danish king, within the Danelaw. It was re-incorporated into Anglo-Saxon England when Edward 'the Elder', 899-924, re-unified the country.

It has always been a rich and prosperous part of the country, In the later Middle Ages it was famous for its wool. The magnificent and beautiful churches of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were built from the profits of this industry. In Anglo-Saxon times too it was rich and prosperous and a vast number of churches were during this period. According to the Victoria County History no less than 604 are mentioned in the Domesday Book, 243 in Norfolk and 361 in Suffolk-larger numbers than in any other county; Lincolnshire comes next with 222. Morley, who made a close study of the Suffolk churches, states that 468 ‘townships’ in the county are mentioned in the Domesday Book and that in only 96 of these no churches are referred to. In the other 372 were 450 churches; two had twelve each, one (South Elmham) had eight, two had five each, eight had three and twenty-five had two each; the remaining 334 had one each. These figures do not agree with those of the V. C. H. though both groups are large. This is not surprising as the difficulties of interpretation of the Domesday Book are well known and understood; the Book was primarily an economic survey and is only interested in churches for their economic value. Thus ‘all the churches(at Beeston, Norfolk) are included in the valuation of the manors’; and at Beeston, St. Anne’s there was ‘half a church worth 12 pence’. The later is interesting as it indicates that some churches were held in moieties, i, e, one church might belong to several owners.

The writer has not checked the above figures . Checking seemed unnecessary as their sole significance in the present context is their large size, which shows perhaps better than anything else could the great populousness and prosperity in Anglo-Saxon times of East Anglia and Lincolnshire. Curiously the churches appear to have been built in clusters, reminiscent of the groups of churches in early Irish/Scots monasteries. Thus , South Elmham was not a village but a district containing a number of churches around each of which a village grew up. Even today South Elmham is an area comprising nine parishes; South Elmham, St. Cross, South Elmham, St. James, St. Margaret, St. Peter, St. Michael, St. Nicholas and so on.

It is this cluster development which may account partially for the large number of churches recorded in the Domesday Book, but not entirely so; there must have been a population great enough to need so many and prosperous enough to be able to build them. This cluster development of churches and settlements was doubtless a result of the agrarian and social organisation of the area. The manorial system, usual in other parts of the country, developed late in East Anglia though it appears to have been widely established there by the time of The Domesday Book. The early organisation of the district, continued throughout the Danish occupation, was on a communal, not manorial basis; communities of small settlements interdependent within larger groupings. The area was colonised, from probably the late fifth century, not by large armies but by small groups of independent settlers who were later federated into larger groups forming a district of villages. These later still became federated into the two major groups of North Folk and South Folk who under a strong leader eventually became a unified East Anglia.

Kings of East Anglia

Raedwald, 593-627
Said to be son of Tytil, grandson of Wuffa.

Earpwald, 6278-630 / 631
Son of Raedwald. Was assassinated by a Heathen named Ricberht.

Sigeberht, 630/1-635
Reputed half brother of Earpward abdicated for the Monks habit was slain in battle holding a staff.

Ecgric, not known-635
Little information on him shared power with Sigeberht for a time, slain with him fighting Penda of Mercia.

Anna, 635-654
Son of Raedwald’s brother Eni, killed in battle fighting Penda of Mercia.

Aethelhere, 654-655
Succeeded his brother Anna but was slain the following year fighting Penda.

Aethelwald, 655-663
Brother of Anna and Aethelhere.

Aldwulf, 663-713
Mother was Hereswith, a sister of Hild who became Abbess of Whitby.

Aelfwald, 713-749
Son of Aldwulf, his sister Ecgburh was an Abbess.

Hun, Beonna and Alberht, 749-not known
Shared rule together presumed sub-Kings under Mercian rule.

Aethelberht, 779-794
Executed by Offa of Mercia for possibly leading a revolt against him.

Eadwald, 794-825
A sub-King of Mercia.

Athelstan, 825-837
Turned to Ecgberht of Wessex after the defeat of Beornwulf of Mercia at the Battle of Ellendun in 825.

Aethlweard, 837-852
Very little is known of him.

Beohtric, 852-855
Possible sub-King of Mercia.

Edmund, 855-869
Was shot to death by arrows at Hoxne for refusing to abandon his faith by the Vikings.

Guthrum, 870-890
Viking King of East Anglia, who was defeated by King Alfred of Wessex and then baptised to be named Athelstan.

Oeric, 890-903
Slain in battle with the men of Kent.

Kent

This was one of three Saxon kingdoms which developed in England south of the Thames; the other two were Sussex and Wessex. The story of kent here is only brief for the moment. It was the earliest of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to be established. The traditional date of its beginning is 449 AD, nearly a hundred years before the establishment of Bernicia in the north. Kent, on account of its nearness to Gaul, had always had close trading and cultural relations with the continent. It became the most advanced, both materially and culturally of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In its early days it was also the most powerful of them. Its greatest King, and its first to become really known in history, was Athelbert, 560-616. He was third in Bede’s list of Bretwaldas and he appears to have exercised some kind of suzerainty over all England south of the Humber river. He was also the first Anglo-Saxon King to commit to writing the laws and customs of his people, another indication of the relatively high degree of culture in this part of England. His marriage to the Christian Bertha, daughter of King Charibert of Paris, gave him some knowledge of and perhaps sympathy with the Christian religion and in 597 he received the mission of St. Augustine and forty monks with tolerance and friendliness. He later became a Christian and no doubt played his part as royal patron in the building of the well-known group of churches of Augustine’s time. These churches, of which only ruins or foundations remain, are usually considered the earliest of the Saxon churches.

They were certainly the earliest churches to be built in Saxon England, but they were not real Saxon churches; they were foreign churches built by foreign masons in a foreign style of the Orthodox church. They are interesting and important on account of their great influence on the style of architecture which developed in England in the Early Saxon period, i.e. up to the Danish invasion of 865-86. Augustine built three churches in Canterbury; his cathedral church of Christ church, within the city, and his monastic church of St Peter and Paul, and St. Pancras close to it, just outside the city wall. Others of the same group put up in the half century after Augustine’s passing were; St. Andrew’s at Rochester and St. Paul’s in London (nothing remains of this church) built by Athelbert in 604; St. Pancras, built by King Eadbald, Athelbert’s son and successor( 620 approximately), after his conversion to Christianity, he initially went back to Heathenism on being crowned King. St. Mary’s at Lyminge, the church of a nunnery founded in (633 approximately) by Athelberga, daughter of Athelberht and widow of Edwin of Northumbria; and St. Mary’s, Resulver (669 approximately). They were towerless.

Eadbald, the Heathen son of Athelbert and Bertha, succeeded Athelbert in 616 and reigned until 640. In the early, Heathen, years of his reign the church in Kent was almost extinguished. Eadbald accepted Christianity in around 620 but his earlier enthusiasm later became dulled. The church just lingered on until it was revived, revitalised and reorganised by the great Archbishop Theadore, 668-90. Under him Christian culture and influence spread throughout the entire country and his church became a national church. He also established a scriptorium at Canterbury, ruled over for two years by Benedict Biscop and then for forty by Theodore’s friend and close companion, Hadrian. The Canterbury scriptorium was of great cultural importance and influence throughout the entire saxon period. It influenced, as a source of inspiration through Biscop, the scriptoria which Biscop established at Jarrow and Monkwearmouth; through them it influenced Bede, and through Bede the later scriptorium at York. Apart from such indirect influence it was for centuries direct channel for interchange and artistic ideas between south-east England and the great western-continental centres of art and learning.

Theodore must have built churches in his own diocese of Kent, though nothing is known of them, he could have been responsible for the great church at Brixworth, Northamptonshire. The era of Theodore may be regarded as the high water mark of the influence of independent Saxon/Jute Kent. Politically it never exceeded, or even reached, the power of Athelbert, and after his time it became progressively less important as the power of first Northumbria and then Mercia steadily grew. It became a mere province of Mercia under Offa approx 762 and remained subordinate to that kingdom until both Mercia and Kent were Conquered by Egbert of Wessex in 825. After that it was no more than merely a part of England, though it remained culturally important and influential for centuries. In Edgars’ reign, for example the Kentish influence of the great monastic revival of St. Dunstan of Canterbury, with St. Athelwold of Winchester and St. Oswald of Worcester and York, were responsible.

With all this going on and with the church building in the pre-conquest Kent. There is very little left of this period now doubt due to the fact this area was an alley-way of culture and trade between England and France, to growing population resulting from increased prosperity, and its nearness to London. As population increased more and larger churches would be needed; the earlier Saxon/Jute ones would be added to altered, transformed, pulled down and rebuilt throughout the centuries. today there is only towered church of the Saxon-Jute period, that of St. Mary in Castro, Dover and the other church is St. Martin’s at Canterbury.

Kings of Kent

Aethelbert I, 560-616
First Anglo Saxon to be baptized.

Eadbald, 616-640
Son of Aethelbert.

Earconberht, 640-664
Son of Eadbald.

Ecgbert I, 664-673
Son of Earconberht.

Hlothere, 673-685
Brother of Ecgbert (ruled with Eadric from 684).

Eadric, 685-686
Son of Ecgbert.

Anarchy, 686-690
Mul, brother of Caedwalla of Wessex.

Oswine
Appears to have ruled some during this period.

Swaeffheard
Son of Sebbi, King of the East Saxons.

Wihtred, 690-725
Second son of Ecgbert.

Aethelberht II, 725-762
Son of Wihtred, possibly shared power with his brother Eadberht I,

Eadberht I, 725-748
Alric, brother of Aethelberht and Eadberht, no chartered evidence nor of his reign, possibly a sub-king.

Kent vassal Offa King of Mercia, 762-796

Eadberht II, ‘Praen’, 796-798
‘Praen’ meant priest leader of revolt against Mercia.

Cuthred, 798-805
Became King of Kent by his brother Coenwulf of Mercia.

Baldred, 805-823
King of Kent with Mercian support who was driven out by Ecgbert of Wessex who became King in 825.

Kent Churches

Saint Martin’s Church
Canterbury

Saint Mary in Castro (Garrison Church)
Dover Castle, Dover, Kent

Essex

The origin of Essex – the Kingdom of the East Saxons is obscure. The area was colonised by Saxons perhaps from Kent possibly about the mid-sixth century and its later associations were with Kent, not as might have been expected with its near neighbour to the north, East Anglia. An illustration of this may be the rarity of round towers in Essex compared with the large number of such towers in East Anglia. The kingdom expanded westwards, absorbing the Middle Saxons of what is now Middlesex and part of Hertfordshire and from the early seventh century London was its most important town. The first attempt to Christianise the area was made by King Athelbert of Kent who persuaded his nephew Saberht of Essex to be baptised.

Athelbert built a church in London supposedly on the site of the present St. Paul’s. Mellitus, one of Augustine’s monks, was appointed bishop in 604. The attempt was hardly more than a gesture. On the passing of Saberht 616 approx Mellitus was driven from the area and did not return. A more successful attempt to introduce Christianity was made some forty years later when King Oswui/Oswy of Northumbria persuaded the East Saxon King, Sigberht, to accept Christianity and to receive Cedd, a brother of the better known Chad, as bishop of the area in 655 approx. Cedd was a real missionary bishop with no fix seat; he travelled about the area making converts. Shortly before he returned home to Northumbria in 664 to quietly pass on, he built the church of St. Peter on the wall at Bradwell juxta Mare, the Saxon Ythancaester, near the Roman fort of Othona. A great part of this church is standing today. Being a towerless church, it may be said that architecturally it is a member of the Kentish group of early churches, with apse, north and south porticus and western porch; unlike the Kentish churches it had the Northumbrian feature, due doubtless to Cedd, of relatively long and high nave.

Essex, though one of the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy, was never one of the big three, nor did ever produce a Bretwalda. It lost its independence rather soon after reaching its maximum expansion. It became subordinate to Wulfhere of Mercia 665 approx and under the great Offa was hardly more than a mere province of Mercia. It submitted to Egbert of Wessex in 825, became a part of the Danelaw after Alfred’s peace with the Danish Guthrum in 886, and was finally reconquered by Edward 'the Elder' in 911-17; after which it became merely a part of Anglo-Saxon England under an Ealderman.

Its history is undistinguished; it produced, so far as is known, no great men. Two nunneries, at Barking and St. Osyth, and a foundation at West Tilbury, were founded in the mid-seventh century, and a monastery at Waltham Cross by Earl Harold, later King Harold, in 1060. No traces of these now exist. There are twenty-two churches which are pre-conquest or contain pre-conquest fragments. Six have towers of the late eleventh century. These are; Holy Trinity, Colchester; Little Bardfield, 6 miles NE. of Great Dunmow; Corringham, 6 miles NE of Tilbury; Steeple Bumpstead, 9 miles E. of Saffron Walden; West Mersea, 8 miles S. of Colchester; and Tollesbury, 7 miles ENE. of Maldon.

Kings of Essex
(East Saxons)

Saeberht, 604-616
Son of Sledd, mother Ricula sister of Aethelberht I of Kent.

Seaxred & Saeweard, 616-617
Eldest sons of Saeberht who ruled jointly.

Sigeberht I ‘Parvus’(Little), 617-c650
Son of Saeward.

Sigeberht II ‘the Good’, 650-660
Son of a certain Sigebald, murdered by two members of court.

Swithhelm, 660-664
Son of Saexbald.

Sighere, 664-688
Son of Sigeberht I who jointly ruled with

Sebbi, 664-694 abdicated
Son of Seaxred.

Sigeheard & Swaefred, 694-704 / 709
Sons of Sebbi who jointly ruled after their father retired to a monastery.

Offa, son of Sigehere
Who may have been associated in the Kingship of the previous Kings but he abdicated in c709 to go to Rome in monks habit.

Swaefberht, 709-738
Succeeded after the abdication of Offa.

Selered, 738-746
Reputed son of Sigeberht II.

Swithred, 746-passing (not known)
A son of one Sigemund and great-grandson of Sebbi.

Sigeric I, not known-798
Son of Selered, thought to have abdicated to go to Rome.

Sigered, 798-825
Son of Sigeric I succeeded when his father went to Rome also became a sub-king to Mercia when it invaded in 823.

Sigeric II, 825-839
By this time he was a ‘Minister’ to Wiglaf of Mercia.

Essex Churches

Church of Saint Peter-on the-Wall
Bradwell on sea, Essex

Sussex

Sussex was the most backward and primitive of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, and was last to accept Christianity. The area was isolated on the landward side by heavy clay soils and thick forests which made communication difficult.

The conquering Saxons from Kent and the evangelising Wilfred reached Sussex by sea. A band of Kentish Saxons under a leader Alle landed near Selsey in 477 and had conquered the coastal part of the area as far as Pevensey by 491. According to Bede Alle was the first Bretwalda, but the title at that time could have had little or no territorial significance. It is difficult to believe that Alle, who had taken fourteen years to conquer a part of Sussex and then faded more or less from history, could have been overlord of Southern England. It is more likely that he gained the title as a valiant soldier who had a great reputation for his military skill and successes.

Nothing more is known of Sussex for nearly 200 years. Athelwalh, a Sussex prince in exile, married, 675 approx, Ebba, the daughter of Eanfrith, sub-king of the Hwicce, and accepted baptism, Wulfhere of Mercia acting as godfather. Athelwalh, with the help of Wulfhere, returned as king to Sussex and attempted, though apparently with little success, to evangelise his people. As recorded by Bede, Dicul, a Scot or more probably an Irish/Scotti monk, settled with five or six companions at Bosanham (Bosham) about this time. Their teaching appears to have made little impression on the inhabitants. Success followed the efforts of the energetic Wilfred of Ripon who spent five years, 681-6, of his second exile from Northumbria helping Athelwalh to convert the South Saxons (Sussex). He established a monastery at Selsey and in the words, performed all the duties of a bishop in these parts. ‘Sussex was conquered and Athelwalh killed by cadwalla of Wessex, also a Christian, 685 approx and Wilfrid continued his activities for another year, after which he returned to Northumbria. Sussex regained its independence from Wessex 725 approx but was re-conquered by and became a mere province of Mercia under Offa 771 approx. Later, in 825, after Ecgbert of Wessex had beaten Mercia in the decisive battle of Ellandum, Sussex, Kent and Essex submitted to Ecgbert and as separate kingdoms passed out of history. The subsequent history of Sussex is a part of the history of England.

Wilfrid’s work in Sussex was thorough. When he left the district Christianity was firmly established. He is reported to have built some churches in the Meon valley in east Hampshire, an area added with the Isle of Wight to Athelwalh’s dominions by Wulfhere. A Saxon sundial at Warnford Church (Hampshire) is considered by some writers to be a fragment from Wilfrid’s original church. He must have built churches also in Sussex but there are no remains there definitely known to be of his period. Many churches were built in later times of which more than forty remain today either entire or in part or as fragments remaining in the walls of later rebuilding. Five have towers of the late Saxon period; those at Bosham, Jevington, Singleton, Sompting and perhaps, South Bersted.

Kings of Sussex
(South Saxons & Jutes)

Aelle, 477-500
Founder of Sussex, sailed from Kent to land at Selsey. Nothing is known of Sussex for 150 years.

Aethelwald, 650-680
Slain by Caedwalla of Wessex.

Berthun (West) & Andhun (East), 680-685
Defeated by Caedwalla of Wessex in 685.

Nothelm/Nunna, 688-725
King of Sussex, sub-King of Wessex.

Aethelstan, 714
Presumed sub-King of East Sussex.

Aethelberht, 733-754
Possible son of Aethelstan.

Sussex under Mercian control by 757 ruled by Offa.

Ealdwulf, ruled before and after 765.

Osmund, 765-772

Aelwald, 765-772

Oslac, 780
These were Kings or sub-Kings of Sussex of which were the last to be identified in Sussex.

Sussex Churches

Saint Andrew’s Church
Bishopstone, East Sussex

Saint Peter’s Church
Southease, East Sussex

Wessex
Includes – Berkshire, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Hampshire, Isle of Wight, Somersetshire, Surrey and Wiltshire.

Although Wessex is so closely associated with the extreme south-central part of southern England it did not originate there. The earliest settlements of the West Saxons were in the valley of the upper Thames, in south Oxfordshire and Berkshire. the story in the early Anglo-saxon Chronicle that the West Saxons landed under their leaders Cerdic and his grandson Cynric in 495 at the head of Southampton Water and that they fought their way northwards and established their kingdom in Hampshire and Wiltshire is no longer accepted. The archeological evidence indicates that the settlers worked their way up the Thames valley, and some perhaps along the Icknield Way from the wash, to settle in the Berkshire area, around about the year 500. Cerdic’s men were probably small groups of adventurers, great fighters but to few to form permanent settlements. they lived off the land they had invaded and fought their way northwards until under Cynric’s son Caewlin, 560-91, they reached the permanent West Saxon settlements in Berkshire which had been established more than half a century earlier. Ceawlin, a great warrior, named by Bede the second Bretwalda of England was accepted as their King by the established West Saxons and become the first real King of Wessex of the House of Cerdic. Under Ceawlin the expansion of Wessex began. About 577 he penetrated into the south part of Hwicce and occupied the area round Gloucester and Cirencester.

Expansion then continued southwards, in the direction from which Cerdic and Cynric had come, into Wiltshire and Hampshire. Under his immediate successors Wessex was unable to withstand the growing power of Mercia. All Wessex north of the Thames, including Dorchester, ite ecclesiastical centre and at that period its only bishopric, passed permanently to Mercia and the rest of Wessex became for a period more or less subordinate to Mercia. Under two strong Kings, Cadwalla 685-8 and Ine 688-726, the strength of Wessex revived and a fresh period of consolidation and expansion developed. Cadwalla conquered Sussex and the Isle of Wight. Under Ine the West Saxons penetrated the Forest of Selwood, hitherto their western boundary, and occupied parts of Somerset and Devon. A Saxon monastery was founded at Exeter before 700. Ine was the greatest of the early Wessex Kings. He strengthened and consolidated his kingdom and re-organised the church in Wessex. He drew up a famous code of West Saxon law which was later incorporated in the even more famous code of Alfred 'the Great'. He was an intensely religious man his religion proved a tragedy for his country. He resigned his kingship in 726 in order to die in a monastery in Rome. After him Wessex fell again into internal disorder and became subject to Mercia, at this time more powerful than ever the two successive Kings Athelbald and Offa.

Nearly a century later the third great King of Wessex arose, Ecgbert, 802-39, a descendent of Ine’s brother. He had been expelled from Kent, where his father was sub-King, by Offa in 789. He spent some years in the France of Charlemagne and after Offa’s death returned and was accepted as King by the West Saxons. for twenty years Egbert quietly consolidated and strengthened his country. Then the great trial of strength occurred between him and the Mercian King, no longer an Offa, at Ellandun in 825. The power of Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex submitted to Egbert; the unification of England had begun.

Christianity had been introduced into Wessex by Birinus, an independent missionary, 635 approx. The King, Cynegils (611-43) accepted it and made Birinus the first bishop of the West Saxons with his seat at Dorchester. After a few years Birinus left Wessex and disappeared from history as suddenly as he had entered it. It is doubtful whether he had converted many of his people, but he had made an impression which was permanent. Christianity continued to expand its influence, due partly no doubt, as had been the case earlier in Northumbria, to the devoutly religious character of some of the West Saxon Kings, including the greatest. Moreover Celtic Christianity had for long dominant in the south-west, beyond Selwood; Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset and Malmesbury in Wiltshire were originally Celtic /British Orthodox Christian foundations. The celtic church was only loosely organised. Its influence was spread mainly through isolated monasteries and individual small groups of hermits, such as Dicul of Bosham. But the Christian influence was there which made it easier for the later West Saxon Kings, all of whom were of the Roman Orthodox persuasion, to establish a properly organised church.

For some years after the departure of Birinus Wessex had no bishop. Then Bishop Agilbert, a Frank, arrived 650 approx to continue the work. King Cenwalh (643-72) son of Cynegils, made him second bishop of Dorchester. Later 660 approx the King established a second bishopric at Winchester to which he appointed Wine, a Saxon, a bishop. Agilbert soon after left Wessex, the Dorchester area passed to Mercia and Winchester was the only diocese of Wessex for nearly half a century. Cenwal’s son and successor Centwine, 675 approx. 685, was recorded by Aldhelm, the famous Abbot of Malmesbury, as the founder of many churches. It was the great Ine who first organised the church in Wessex. He created a separate bishopric at Sherborne at Sherborne in 705 to look after the needs of ‘Wessex beyond Selwood’ and appointed Aldhelm as the first bishop (705-9). These two were the only sees in Wessex for more than two centuries Under Edward 'the Elder', as part of his reorganisation of England after his conquest of the Danelaw, a see of Ramsbury was split off from Winchester to serve Berkshire and Wiltshire, and the two sees of Wells and Crediton were divided off from Serborne to serve respectively Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. Later a separate see of St. Germans was created for created for Cornwall. These sees proved too small to be self-supporting and under Edward the Confessor Ramsbury was reunited to Sherborne, St. Germans was abolished and Cornwall and Devon were included in a new bishopric of Exeter, transferred from Crediton.

Winchester remained throughout the centuries the ‘mother’ diocese of Wessex and its greatest centre of religious and cultural life. its scriptorium rivalled that of Canterbury and from the mid-tenth century exceeded Canterbury in fame; for it was at Winchester at about this period that the famous ‘Winchester School’ of book illumination developed and spread throughout the southern part of England Winchester illumination was produced at monasteries as far apart as Exeter, Glastonbury, Canterbury, Abingdon and Ramsey (Hunts). Perhaps its most famous product, produced probably at Winchester, was the Benedictional of St. Athelwold, formerly at Chatsworth and now in the British Museum. The school was tersely and aptly described by T. S. Kendrick as the best thing in Englisc art, Englisc born, the first really Englisc thing in Englisc art; and its influence outlived the Saxon period.

From this short sketch of Wessex it might be inferred that there are many pre-conquest churches in the area. There are at least 16 in Hampshire, and about 20 altogether in Berkshire, Wiltshire and Dorset the four counties which comprise the real Wessex. Some are of a very early date; those with towers are later. Some of the churches includes the famous little church at Bradford-on Avon, Wiltshire, was originally part of the monastery founded in the eight century by Aldhelm. There are seven churches if Surrey is included who have towers, all of the eleventh century. They are Wickham, Berkshire, Netheravon, Wiltshire, Breamore and Warblington, Hampshire and Compton, St. Mary’s, Guildford, and Wotton, Surrey.

Kings of Wessex
(known as the ‘Geuissae’ until the reign of Caedwalla, also from the reign of Ecgberht, the Kings of all England)

Ceawlin, 560-591 / 581-588
Son of Cynric expelled from his Kingdom.

Ceol, 591-597/588-594
Son of Cutha and grandson of Cynric.

Ceolwulf, 597-611 / 594-611
Brother of Cutha.

Cynegilis, 611-642
Son of Ceol.

Cenwealh, 642-672
Son of Cyngelis.

Queen Seaxburh, 672-674
Widow of Cenwealh took over the Government on the death of her husband.

Aeswine, 674-676
Son of Cenfus, and a descendant of Cerdic.

Centwine, 676-685
Son of Cynegils who was deposed by Caedwalla.

Caedwalla, 685-689
Great-Great-Grandson of Caewlin and son of Cenberht, abdicated and went to Rome to be baptized as Peter passing seven days later.

Ine, 688-725
Son of Cenred and Great-Great-Great Grandson of Ceawlin became one of the most famous Wessex Kings, like Caedwalla before him abdicated to go to Rome.

Aetheiheard, 726-740
Took the throne with agreement of Ine, like Ine did with Caedwalla.

Cuthred, 740-756
Succeeded Aethelheard to the throne, not known where he came from but he restored Wessex’s prestige.

Sigeberht, 756-757
Kinsman of Cuthred, he was deposed by Cynewulf and the Counsellors of Wessex ‘for unlawful actions’.

Cynewulf, 757-786
Claiming descent from Cerdic, Cyneheard brother of Sigeberht had Cynewulf killed whose relief force killed Cyneheard the following day.

Brihtic, 786-802
Succeeded Cynewulf on his murder, of the family of Cerdic, his parentage unknown.

Ecgberht, 802-839
He has a special place in Wessex and English history as the first king of all England.

Aethelwulf, 839-858
Succeeded Ecgberht was a sub-King before in Essex, Kent, Surrey and Sussex.

Athelbald, 858-860
Second son of Aethelwulf, his elder brother Aethelstan sub-king had passed on in 850.

Aethelberht, 860-865
Succeeded his brother, he was a sub-king before the same as Aethelstan.

Aethelred I, 865-871
Fourth son of Aethelwulf who died from wounds after victory at the battle of Ashdown, Berkshire.

Alfred, 871-899
The only English King to be called ‘the Great’, being the father and Founder of England after the victory over Guthrum at the Battle of Ethundun (Edington), Wiltshire.

Edward ‘the Elder’, 899-924
Son of Alfred started the campaign to establish England.

Aelfweard, 924-924
Son of Edward ‘the Elder’ had a very brief reign, dying at Oxford.

Aethelstan, 924-939
Grandson of Alfred ‘the Great’ who was brought up in the Mercian court, he became truly ‘the King of England’.

Edmund I, 939-946
Half-brother of Aethelstan who was stabbed to death at Pucklechurch in Gloucestershire.

Edred, 946-955
Succeeded to the throne on the murder of his brother.

Eadwig, 955-959
A young boy when his father was murdered, he succeeded his uncle on his passing.

Edgar, 959-975
Brother of Edwig, he instituted reforms permitted a good deal of autonomy to the Danes, who were allowed to retain their traditional customs.

Edward II ‘the Martyr’, 975-978
On the instigation of his step-mother Aelthryth and allies, he was assassinated at Corfe Castle whilst visiting his half-brother Aethelred, he became a martyr for his proposed reforms for the Church.

Aethelred II, ‘the Unready’, 978-1016
He had a most unfortunate reign with things which appeared to conspire against him coming now doubt from the assassination of his half-brother Edward who he had reburied in a shrine at Shaftsbury Abbey.

Sweyn ‘Forkbead’, 1014-1014
King of Denmark with his son Cnut swore vengeance after St. Brice’s day massacre where Aethelred had people from Danish extraction murdered including his sister, Gunhild. He died soon where Aethelred was recalled from Normandy.

Edmund II ‘Ironside’, 1016
Son of Aethelred who was the strong arm for his father, but died under mysterious circumstances possibly assassinated.

Cnut, 1016-1035
Son of Sweyn ‘Forkbeard’ elected King of England on the death of Edmund ‘Ironside’ was a very good King considering the St. Brice’s day massacre.

Harold I ‘Harefoot’, 1035-1040
Son of Cnut.

Harthacnut, 1040-1042
Son of Cnut, unworthy King, who thankfully died soon after whilst on a drinking bout.

Edward III ‘the Confessor’, 1043-1066
He was crowned King with no opposition but no children were conceived which caused real problems, he named Earl Harold Godwinson as his heir to the throne.

Alfred the Atheling
Son of Aethelred younger brother of Edward ‘the Confessor’ came to England contend against Harold I for throne, Godwine’s men captured him blinded him to die at Ely, no doubt coloured Edwards attitude towards the Godwine family. Edward the Atheling, son of Edmund ‘Ironside’ came over from the Hungarian court for approval but died shortly after arriving.

Harold II, 1066-1066
Elected King by the Witan as he had demonstrated in the past of a trusted and loyal supporter of Edward and the crown, victory at the battle of Stanford Bridge but defeated at Senlac ridge by the Duke of Normandy vassal of the King of France.

Edgar, 1066
Son of Edmund ‘Ironside’ elected King by the Witan on the death of Harold but was swept aside by the duke of Normandy William ‘the Bastard’ whose troops slaughtered hundreds of people outside Westminster Abbey whilst he crowned ‘himself’ King of England ‘cold heart and bloody hand Now rule the English land’.

Wessex Churches

Saint Laurence’s Church
Bradford upon Avon, Wiltshire

Saint Martin’s Church
Northgate, Wareham, Dorsetshire

Saint Michael at the Northgate
Oxford, Oxon

Corhampton Church
Corhampton, Hampshire

Saint Swithun’s Church
Headbourne Worthy, Winchester, Hampshire

Mercia

Includes – Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire, Huntingdonshire, Warwickshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Middlesex.

This area, excluding Lincolnshire, East Anglia and Essex, comprised roughly the old Anglian kingdom of Mercia at the height of its optimum expansion. Mercia arose from the fifth-century settlements of Anglian tribes. There were three groups. One worked its way from the Wash up the River Welland, across country through what is now Rutland and Leicestershire, then down the rivers Wreak and Soar to the Trent to settle south of the middle Trent. There they mingled with a second group which penetrated later from the Humber and up the Trent. This area of settlement became North Mercia, the heart and centre of the later Mercia. A group moved from the Wash up the rivers Welland, Nene and Ouse to settle in the district now represented by Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire and parts of Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire. These were the Middle Angels. They were incorporated into greater Mercia by Penda in the mid-seventh century, but for long retained a loose kind of local semi-independence, both politically and culturally. Thus, the Heathen Penda made his Christian son Peada sub-King of the Middle Angles. Later, the area had its own bishopric, split off from the greater Mercian see of Lichfield and later fixed at Leicester from 737 on until it ended during the Danish invasions. This distinction between North Mercia and Middle Anglia should be borne in mind as both groups of people developed a characteristic Christian culture and art along somewhat different lines.

Little or nothing is known about early history of Mercia, perhaps because the Mercians' struggle against the forces of nature in clearing the forests and draining the swaps of this, at that time, inhospitable part of the country in order to establish their settlements left them little time to make history, which in those days meant making war against other tribes and leaders. They first came into the full light of history with their tough fighting, Heathen King Penda, 632-54. He, in alliance with Cadwallon, British prince of Gwynedd, defeated and killed the great Edwin of Northumbria in 632, and was later himself killed fighting against Oswiu/Oswy of Northumbria in 654. In between these years he incorporated the Middle Angles and other settlements of the south, west and south-west midlands into his kingdom and made Mercia comparable in power with Northumbria. Though Heathen he was apparently a tolerant man for he permitted his eldest son Peada to marry the Christian daughter of Oswiu/Oswy of Northumbria and to become Christian. Peada during his reign as sub-King of the Middle Angles under his father and his even shorter reign as King of Mercia, 654-6, introduced Christianity among the Middle Angles and later, among the North Mercians and endowed the great monastery at Medeshampstede, now Peterborough. Under Peada’s brother Wulfhere, 657-74, Mercia became supreme overlord of all England south of the Humber. This supremacy was however permanent owing to a temporary rise to strength and independence of southern England under two successive Kings of Wessex, Cadwalla, 685-9, and Ine, 689-726.

Wulfhere was succeeded by his brother Athelred, 674-704, a man of great piety. He continued the development of Christianity in his country with help of Wilfred of Ripon who spent the eleven years of his second exile from Northumbria, 691-702, in Mercia as a personal friend of the King and for part of that time as acting bishop of the Mercians. Athelred and Wilfred founded several monasteries, among them that at Oundle in which Wilfred was reputed subsequently to be buried. Some time during the reign of Athelred the magnificent, aisled, basilican church at Brixworth was founded. Athelred abdicated in 704 and retired to a monastery. He was succeeded by Cenred, a son of Wulfhere, who likewise abdicated in 708 and died later at a monastery in Rome. Athelred’s son Ceolred, a worthless youth, ruled 708-16 and after him came two Kings whose reigns covered eighty years and who were the founders of that Greater Mercia which exercised supremacy over all England. These Kings were Athelbald, 716-57, a descendent of Penda’s brother Eowa, and Offa, 757-96, another descendent of Penda’s brother and a distant cousin of Athelbald.

After quietly consolidating his country, and after the abdication of Ine of Wessex in 726, Athelbald made himself supreme overlord i. e. Bretwalda, of all England south of the Humber. His successor Offa brought Northumbria, too, under his suzerainty and Offa’s reign indeed was the great age of the Mercian kingdom. This rise to power is indicated by the successive titles adopted by these two Kings, as seen in their various charters. Athelbald from ‘King of the Mercians' became ‘King of the south Englsc’, King not only of the Mercians but of those neigbouring peoples over whom God has set me’, and ‘Rex Britanniae’. Offa went further and spoke of his kingdom as ‘Kingdom of the whole land of the Englisc’, (regnum totius Anglorum patriae) and his contemporaries addressed him as ‘King of the Englisc’, the first ruler of that title. Offa has been called ‘the Great' and was not underserving of that description. He was the first Englisc King to realise the importance of close intercourse with other nations and to have a definite foreign policy. He corresponded and negotiated, on commercial as well as political matters, with Charlemagne on terms of equality. In his reign, too, a papal legatine mission visited England from Rome in 786, the first such mission in Anglo-Saxon/Englisc history and the last until the reign of Edward the Confessor more than 250 years later. Towards the end of his reign he built the well-Known Offa’s dyke, more than 70 miles of earthworks put up not as a defence but more probably as a frontier demarcating his boundary with Wales.

The power of Mercia declined under Cenwulf, 796-821, Offa’s distant cousin and successor and the last King of the House of Penda, and the supremacy of Mercia disappeared forever in the great and decisive victory of Egbert of Wessex at Ellundun in 825.

It was long thought that Mercia was a culturally backward kingdom, a mainly militaristic state, a kind of Anglo-Saxon/Englisc Sparta. This was due probably to the fact that she produced no early chroniclers. Early literary references to the region are mainly in Northumbrian and South Englisc annals written by chroniclers who would have regarded Mercia as an enemy. Historical and archeological research in the 20th century has revealed a different picture. Study of existing illuminated manuscripts and monuments proves that though in quality and quantity Mercian art may not have equalled the best of the earlier Northumbrian or the later South Englisc it was far from being inconsiderable or insignificant; it was in fact fine. It indeed true that the great centre of Anglo-Saxon/ Englisc art travelled south following the political ascendancy. It arose and reached its first peak in Northumbria in the last third of the seventh and the first half of the eighth century. After the Northumbrian political decline it flourished in Mercia in the last quarter of the eighth and the first half of the ninth century, after which it passed to wessex.

Mercia had two ecclesiastical centres from an early date; Lichfield, which was the seat of a bishopric from 669 and for a short period, 788-803, was an arch-bishopric set up by Offa in opposition to that of Canterbury; and Repton, where a double monastery for men and women was founded by Diuma, first bishop of the Mercians and Middle Angles, appointed by Peada in 652. Both were in North Mercia. The political capital, that is the main residence of the King, had been moved from Tamworth to Repton by Penda.

The Book of Cerne, an illuminated book which proved many motifs to contemporary and the later artists and sculptors, has been described by T. D. Kendrick as ‘the first indubitable Mercian book’, made probably at Lichfield between 818 and830, that is at the very end of the period of Mercian military supremacy.

In sculpture she produced three distinct schools. The Mercian standing crosses were of characteristic type and design, clearly distinguished from those of other regions. The East Mercian or Fenland school of figural and ornamental sculpture, developed among the Middle Angles, produced very beautiful carvings, many of which remain today, though some in much weathered condition, Breedon-on the-hill, Peterborough, Fletton and Castor. these date to the eighth and early ninth centuries. In south and south-west Mercia the sculpture was influenced partly by East Mercia but more importantly from Wessex and the continent. A good example of this is the Lechmere stone at Hanley castle, Worcestershire which, showing a Crucifixion scene, has a plant growing from each side of the base of the cross. Very similar motifs are found on a cross at Whitchurch and also on the Cruxifixion panel at Romsey, both are in Hampshire.

In architecture, too, Mercia was not behind the other great areas of the country. Three of the greatest and finest Anglo-Saxon/Englisc churches are to be found there; the late seventh-century aisled and apsed basilican church at Brixworth, Northamptonshire, the church with its famous crypt at Repton, Derbyshire, perhaps 750-800 originally, which was burnt by the marauding Danes in 876 and not rebuilt till 974-and the early eighth century apsed church at Deerhurst, Gloucestershire. All three were monastic.

Most of the churches discussed below, and of course all the towers, are post-870, many being of the tenth and eleventh centuries. That is, they were built long after the ascendancy and even the independence of Mercia had passed away, when Mercia had become merely a region of England after the re-conquest from the Danes and unification of the country by Edward the Elder, 900-24, and Athelstan, 924-39. But many of these churches are rebuildings of earlier churches founded in the Early Angles period before the first Danish invasions and destroyed, partially or completely, during those invasions. In the existing churches are many remains of the earlier ones, as is plainly evident at Brigstock, Deerhurst and elsewhere.

Kings of Mercia
(includes the Hwicce and Lindsey)

Creoda, not known-593
About reign - not known.

Pybba, 593-606
About reign not known.

Cearl, 606-626
His daughter married Cwenburth, married Edwin of Northumbria, with victory at the battle of the River Idle his reign became permanent no longer the life of a fugitive.

Penda, 626-655
Was clearly a great King but as a Heathen nearly all the information about his reign comes from Bede the Monk which was not always flattering.

Peada, 655-656
Son of Penda made King of the Middle Angles, he missed the debacle at the battle of Winwaed only to be murdered by the treachery of his wife.

Oswiu of Bernicia, 655-658
Victor over Mercia after battle of Winwaed lost control in 658 after a rebellion.

Wulfhere, 658-675
Young son of Penda became King of Mercia after the rebellion by three ealdorman against Oswiu.

Aethelred I, 675-704
Third son of Penda abdicated in 704 to become Abbot at the monastery of Bardsey.

Cenred, 704-709
Son of Wulfhere, succeeded his uncle Athelred but like him abdicated in 709 to go to Rome, accompanied by Offa ofthe East Saxons.

Ceolred, 709-716
Son of Aethelred succeeded when his cousin Cenred abdicated.

Ceolwald, 716
Nothing is known at present.

Aethelbald, 716-757
Son of Alwih. Murdered by his own guards at Seckington, near Tamworth.

Beornred, 757
Little is known of this King, after a few months dispossessed by Offa.

Offa, 757-796
One of the great Kings of Mercia, built Offa’s Dyke amongst other things.

Ecgfrith, 796
Son of Offa, became King in 787 by his father but only lasted 141 days after Offa’s death.

Cenwulf, 796-821
Another formidable Mercian King who suspiciously took the throne not long after the young Ecgfrith was crowned and was ruthless.

Ceolwulf I, 821-823
Brother of Cenwulf, was expelled from the Kingdom two years later.

Beornwulf, 823-826
Seized power from Ceolwulf lost the battle of Ellendun against Wessex and was slain in battle against the East Anglians.

Ludeca, 826-827
His origins are not known slain in battle against the East Anglian when he went to avenge the death of is predecessor.

Wiglaf, 827-829
Took the throne after the death of Ludeca but Mercia losing power and Ecgberht of Wessex who drove him out of the Kingdom.

Ecgberht of Wessex, 829-830
he ruled the Kingdom until Wiglaf came back and regained his Kingdom.

Wiglaf, 830-840
He continued to rule till his passing in 840.

Berhtwulf, 840-852
He saw the virtual annihilation of Mercia by a new enemy called the Vikings, in the end he retired to Rome.

Ceolwulf II, 874-878
A Thegn set on the throne by the Vikings.

Aethelred II, 879-911
Origins unknown put in place by Alfred ‘the Great’ after much of Mercia had been recovered from the Vikings.

Aethelflaed ‘the Lady of the Mercians’
Daughter of Alfred ‘the Great’ who ruled Mercia after the passing of her husband, passing herself in 918.

Aelfwynn, 918
Became Queen of Mercia after the passing of her mother but was soon dispossessed by Edward ‘the Elder’ her uncle.

Hwicce
This small Kingdom led an obscure existence in the seventh and eighth centuries, being approximately in part of present Worcestershire, part of West Warwickshire and part of north Gloucestershire, they appear to be both Saxons and Angles whose small Kingdom became part of Mercia, but its existence is reflected in the diocese of Worcester, established in 675 to look after the spiritual needs of the Hwicces.

Eanhere
First King to be identified who ruled in the mid-seventh Century, with his brother were Christian.

Osric, 676-691?
Possible nephew of Eanhere, and son of Eanfrith, Eanhere’s brother.

Oshere, 693-716?
Issued a charter in 693.

Aethelheard
Gave land grant in 704, also associated with Aethelweard possible joint rulers, sub-Kings to Mercia.

Aethelric
Son of Oshhere, reigning approximately 716-737, a sub-King of Mercia.

Eanberht
Joint ruler with Uhtred and Aldred, charters by him in 757 and 759 believed passed on before the other Kings.

Uhterd
Joint ruler by charters with Eanberht and Aldred in 737 and 759, but grants made alone in 767 and 770 may have excluded Aldred as he made charters in 778.

Aldred
Joint ruler of Hwicces with Eanberht and Uhtred in 750s, made a grant himself in 778 to St. Mary’s, Worcester, he like the rest were acting as sub-Kings to Mercia.

Lindsey
Lindsey had its own Kings, but was never strong enough to play an independent role so was dominated either by Mercia or Northumbria, a list of Kings have been identified with ascendancy going back to Woden, becoming part of the Danelaw on Danish invasion and settlement.

Mercian Churches

All Saints Church
Brixworth, Northamptonshire

All Saints Church
Earls Barton, Nr Northampton, Northamptonshire

Saint Mary's Priory Church
Deerhurst, Gloucestershire

Odda's Chapel
Deerhurst, Gloucestershire

Saint Peter’s Church
Barton upon Humber, Lincolnshire

Lincolnshire - (Part of Mercia)

Lincolnshire, though now a well-defined county, was less well defined in Anglo-Saxon/Englisc times. The northern part between the Humber and the River Witham (on which stands Lincoln city) was known as Lindsey, as for administrative purposes this part of the county is still called. It was colonised by Anglian tribes working south from the Humber, peoples belonging to the same groups as those who had penetrated northwards to Deira and Bernicia, and the later ones who worked south-west and joined up with others from the Wash to form North Mercia. The date of the Lindsey settlements is not known, but might be as early the second half of the fifth century. The early history of Lindsey is obscure and its Kings no more than names. It was a bone of contention, being too small to stand permanently alone, between Northumbria and Mercia, but eventually became a permanent appendage to Mercia.

Christianity was introduced into Lindsey by Paulinus 627 approx who built a stone church at Lincoln. Little or nothing is known about its ecclesiastical history during the next half-century until in 677 Archbishop Theodore detached Lindsey from the huge diocese of Lichfield and made it a separate diocese of Lindsey with its cathedral at Sidnacester. the site of Sidnacester is not known. The see apparently ended at the Danish invasions and was not revived until the formation of the Norman diocese and cathedral at Lincoln.

The southern part of Lincolnshire, now known as Kesteven and Holland, belonged then as it does today to fenland country. It was colonised from the Wash by Anglian tribes allied to those who penetrated west to form North Mercia and to those who moved south-west to form Middle Anglia. It originally formed part of Middle Anglian kingdom and was later absorbed into Greater Mercia with the rest of Middle Anglia, after which its association with Mercia was always close, especially ecclesiastically. Thus Guthlac, the founder of Crowland Abbey, was a member of the Mercian royal house and his church was consecrated by Headda, Bishop of Lichfield, between 700 and 706. Ecclesiastically it formed part of the Middle Anglian province. When Theodore in 677 split up the unwieldy see of Lichfield he made a separate see of Middle Anglia (including south Lincolnshire), which became permanently seated at Leicester in 737. This see also ceased to exist at the Danish invasions.

In the late ninth century Lindsey was colonised further by the soldiers of a Danish army, and after Alfred’s peace with Guthrum of 886 the whole county became part of the Danelaw. Culturally the area became more unified and to some degree separatist, at least until the re-conquest by Edward 'the Elder' 918 approx. The culture of Lindsey, as expressed in its sculpture and architecture developed along somewhat independent lines owing to its relative geographical isolation from its nearest Englisc neighbours; Lindsey, the heart of the area, occupying about two-thirds of it, might almost have been an island. It was bounded on the north by the Humber, its main access from the sea, and on the east nominally by the sea with no navigable rivers but more effectively by a band of swamp and marsh widening southwards until it merged with the Fens. On the west there was extensive marshes, heaths and forests through part of which the river Trent, flowed forming a western boundary. The only easy access from the land side was the Roman road, Ermine Street, from Chichester via London to the North. Which in Lincolnshire ran from Stamford through Lincoln to Scunthorpe and the Humber. This part of the road passed along the eastern lower side of the long strip of oolite, narrowing northwards, which runs from south to north through the county, still called ‘The Cliff’ locally. a chalky outcrop to the north-east forms the Lincolnshire Wolds.

Much Danish and Scandinavian influence can be seen in the great of carved stones and fragments scattered throughout the county. Little is known about Lincolnshire churches prior to the eleventh century for, apart from Barton-on-Humber, Broughton-by-Brigg and Stow, where there are significant remains, no early churches remain. All have been rebuilt, some more than once throughout the centuries, leaving only bits and pieces here and there which indicate the existence of earlier buildings. There are thirty-eight towers built in the very last years of the pre-conquest era in some cases perhaps a little later.

Northumbria
Includes – Cumbria (Cumberland and Westmorland), Durham, Lancashire, Northumberland and Yorkshire.

The three eastern counties of this area – Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland-formed the core of the old Anglian kingdom of Northumbria. This arose from a partial unification of two earlier kingdoms; Diera, which covered most of Yorkshire between Humber and Tees, and Bernicia, originally between Tees and Tweed. Deira was founded, or rather grew up, in the second half of the fifth century. Bernicia arose out of Anglian settlements at Bamborough in 547. Little is known of their early history. The earliest known great leader to arise in this region was Athelfrith, King of Bernicia, 593-616. He extended his frontiers northwards to the Forth and westward to the Irish Sea. He married the daughter of Alle King of Deira, and ruled Deira as well from 600 approx onwards. He was the real founder of the historic Northumbrian kingdom. He was killed in battle against Radwald of East Anglia at the river Idle near Doncaster.

Northumbria fortunately had five of its first six Kings were of outstanding ability and personality, and all but the first were Christians. Under the second ruler, the great Edwin, 616-32, brother-in-law of Athelfrith and son of Alle, Northumbria reached the height of its political power. Edwin’s overlordship was accepted throughout the whole country, Kent being the only one of the Anglo-saxon/Englisc kingdoms which did not formally acknowledge it, In 625 Edwin married Athelberg, a daughter of the Christian Athelbert of Kent and Bertha of Paris. Athelberg was accompanied north by the priest and his companions who preached the Gospel in Northumbria, eventually converting Edwin to the faith in 627. Paulinus became the first bishop of York, and Bede records that four churches were built during his ministry; one of wood at York for Edwin’s baptism; a square stone one on the same site (enclosing the earlier wooden one), which was completed by Edwin’s successor Oswald; one at Campodunum, possibly Doncaster, probably of wood as it was burnt soon afterwards, and a stone one at Lincoln which, roofless, was standing in Bede’s day, 731 approx. It seems likely that Paulinus had with him masons from Kent, for at this early date the northern Anglians could hardly have built stone churches, their whole building tradition being in timber.

Paulinus’s ministry lasted only seven years. He and Queen Athelberg fled the kingdom to Kent after Edwin’s death in 632 and did not return. Edwin was defeated and killed at the battle of Hatfield, near Doncaster, fighting against the British Cadwallon, Prince of Gwynedd, and his ally the Heathen Penda of Mercia.

The next King was Oswald, St. Oswald, son of Athelfrith, who reigned from 633-41. He had lived for some years in exile at Iona and it was he who invited Aidan from Iona to form his monastery at Lindisfarne in 634. Oswald defeated and killed Cadwallon at the battle of Hefenfelth, or Heavenfield, near Hexham in 633, It was before this battle that Oswald erected a large wooden cross nearby, which was a prototype of the carved stone standing crosses which became the characteristic expression of the plastic art of the early Anglo-Saxon/Englisc period. According to Bede this was the first christian symbol to be erected in Bernicia. He writes definitely as though it was still in existence in his time, some hundred years after its erection. Oswald was himself defeated and killed by Penda of Mercia at Maserfelth, probably near Oswestry, in 641.

Oswald was succeeded by his brother Oswy in Bernicia only (as Deira was occupied by Penda) until he defeated and killed Penda and his ally Athelhere of the East Angles at the Winwaed, a stream near Leeds, in 654. After this he ruled a reunited Northumbria until his passing in 670. From this time on Northumbria lost its supremacy of all England to Mercia under Wulfere, the Christian son of Penda, 657-74. Henceforth Northumbrian military and political activities were confined to north of the Humber, much to the benefit of the kingdom, for it allowed that internal consolidation which paved the way for the magnificent Anglo-Irish/Hiberno-Saxon art of Northumbria which began to develop about this time. It was Oswy/Oswiu’s reign that the Synod of Whitby was held in 664 at which, due largely to the efforts of Wilfrid of Ripon and the King himself, the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter and the Roman tonsure were accepted as official. As a result of this many of the Celtic/British Orthodox clerics returned to Iona or Ireland and the Roman Orthodox church eventually replaced the Scoto-Celtic teaching of Lindisfarne.

Oswy/Oswiu’s son and successor Ecgfirth, 670-85, was killed fighting the Picts at Nechtanesmere, near Forfar, in 685, a disaster from which recovery was slow and perhaps never complete.

Aldfrith, brother of Ecgfrith, who reigned from 685 to 704, gave stability to his almost ruined country. Bede wrote that Aldfrith ‘ably restored the shattered fortunes of the kingdom, though within boundaries’ and the historian Stenton that the learning of the age of Bede was possible only through the work of Aldfrith in ‘the critical years following the battle of Nechtansmere’. Aldfrith, like his greater successor Alfred the Great, was a considerable scholar and a patron of the arts, and under him the church established its position securely in Northumbria. He was educated in the Celtic/British part of Wessex under the Celtic Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, who had been a pupil of Theodore and Hadrian at Canterbury and was not therefore entirely Celtic/British in outlook. Before Aldfrith became King he had spent some years studying Celtic culture/British in Ireland and Iona. He was indeed a celtic scholar of Distinction and originality. It was in his reign that learning and art reached their peak of distinction in the Northumbrian monasteries.

The Lindisfarne Gospels were produced under Bishop Eadfrith 700 approx, and the ‘Codex Amiatinus’ was one of three complete bibles ordered to be written by Ceolfrith, Abbot of Jarrow, 690-716. The earliest and the finest and finest of the great standing crosses, those at Ruthwell in Dumfries and Bewcastle in Cumberland/Cumbria, are dated to 690 approx and so would belong to the reign of Aldfrith; and the construction of this great series of carved monuments went on undiminished in Aldfrith’s and later reigns, as well as much church building. Stenton writes of Aldfrith; ‘He was undoubtedly one of the most learned men in his own kingdom, and it is probable that his influence on the development of Northumbrian learning was much greater than appears on the surface of history. He is the most interesting member of the remarkable dynasty to which he belonged, and he stands besides Alfred of Wessex among the few Old Engisc Kings who combined skill in warfare with desire for knowledge.’

The Kings who came after Aldfrith were all Politically obscure, but a few were of great piety and probably exerted a greater influence on the development of culture than their political obscurity would indicate. Thus, Ceolworth, 729-37, otherwise almost unknown, was ‘the most glorious King’ to whom Bede dedicated his famous book ‘A History of the Englisc church and people’ in 731. Ceolworth abdicated in 737 and ‘entered the monastery of Lindisfarne; he gave to (the monks of St. Cuthbert his royal treasures and lands, that is to say Bregesne (possibly Brainshaugh, near Warkworth) and Werceworde, (possibly Warkworth), with their appurtenances (accessories), together with the church he had built there, and four others vills also, Wudecetre (possibly Woodhorn), Hwitingham (possibly Whittingham), Eadulfingham (possibly Whittingham), Eagwulfingham (possibly Eglingham).

Ceolworth’s successor Eadbert, 737-58, also abdicated to live as a monk in the monastery of his brother Ecgberht/Egbert, Archbishop of York. This Ecgberht, who had been a pupil of Bede and was later the teacher of Alcuin, founded the school at York which was later built up and developed by his kinsman Athelbert, also later Archbishop of York. Though Ecgberht the substance of Bede’s teaching was transmitted to a group of scholars, including Alcuin, who rapidly made York a prime centre of Englisc scholarship. Through Alcuin the work of Bede, via York, was a contributory factor, and an important one, in the revival of Western learning under Charlemagne. Charlemagne invited Alcuin in 782 to become head of his Palace School at Aachen, and later made him Abbot of St. Martin’s at Tours, 796-804, a monastery which Alcuin converted into a great centre of learning.

This export of religion and culture to western and north-western Europe is an essential part of the story. Northumbria was not a small outlaying kingdom which developed a brilliant art, culture, architecture and sculpture in isolation. It could not of course have developed very far, if at all, in isolation It influenced and was influenced by, it grew up in cultural association with, the Celtic learning of Ireland and south-west Scotland. Later its scholars and missionaries went abroad to Europe and founded monasteries which also became centres of learning, and which in turn influenced the art and architecture of these Islands. Thus, Willibrord from Northumbria spent more than forty years, from 690 approx, among the Frisians and founded the famous Abbey of Echternach, near Trier 710 approx. Later from the other end of England Boniface of Devon did similar and even more effective work among the west Germans between 719-754, and founded the great Abbey of Fulda 744 approx. His work has been stated to be the most important single influence on the history of Europe that any Engliscman has ever exercised (Christopher Dawson).

The great achievements of Northumbian culture, though rendered possible, or at least facilitated, by the outstanding personalities and patronage of the Northumbrian Kings, were brought about by four great churchmen whose work resulted in what has been called the Heroic Age of Anglo-Saxon/Englisc Church in the eighth century. These men were Benedict Biscop, 628-90, Wilfred of Ripon, 634-709, Bede of Jarrow, 763-735, and the great organiser and ecclesiastical statesman Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury, 668-90. Theodore indeed has been described as ‘the first man in Englisc history to whom we fittingly give the name statesman’. He not Augustine, was the true founder of the organised Anglo-Saxon /Englisc Church. He made his authority effective throughout the whole country. He cut several dioceses out of the single unwieldy one of Northumbria and brought them under the authority of Canterbury. Bede has been sufficiently referred to the above. His genius was in letters, theology and above all in history. He was not the only Englisc historian and the greatest of his age; his equal did not appear again for five hundred years. But apart from his very great general influence on culture he had no direct influence on architecture or on church building.

Benedict Biscop and Wilfred, both members of royal houses, were great builders. They must be regarded as the initiators of church building in stone in Northumbria. Benedict Bishop made six journeys to Rome, bringing back pictures, books treasures for the churches he intended to build. He also brought masons, glaziers and other craftsmen from Gaul to help him build ‘more Romanorun’ i.e. in the manner of the Romans, in stone.

The spread of Christianity throughout Northmbria, in fact throughout all England, was surprisingly rapid and extensive, and the conversion of Kings and nobles apparently genuine and sincere. The Kings became great patrons of the arts. They supplied lands and endowments for church buildings and were fortunate in that there was great ecclessiatics to take full advantage of this great opportunity. Also at this time, at this early time England was not a unified country but comprised seven politically separate kingdoms, those of the so-called Heptarchy, developing culturally along their own lines, although of course deeply influenced by the not very dissimilar cultures of their neighbours.

Later, after the first great series of Danish invasions was over, and Alfred had reorganised his part of the country, and after his son Edward 'the Elder’ and grandson ‘Athelstan’ had re-conquered the Danelaw and so created one country, England, a new wave of church building as Christianity took a new lease of life, again under royal patronage, the patronage of Edgar, Canute and Edward 'the Confessor'. With once again with great ecclesiastics to take full advantage this time with St. Dunstan, St. Athelwold of Winchester, St. Oswald of Worcester and York, one may add Edward the confessor himself-were able to build monasteries and churches, in a truly national style in late Anglo-Saxon/Englisc period.

Kings of Bernicia

Ida, 547-559
Son of Eoppa, fortification of Bamburgh.

Adda, 560-568
Eldest son of Ida.

Aethelric, 568-572
son of Ida.

Theodric, 572-579
Brother of Athelric.

Frithuwald, 579-585
Son of Ida.

Hussa, 585-592
His son led the Bernicians to a great victory over Aedan mac Gabhrain at Degsastan in 603.

Urien
Ruler of Rheged to the west who with other warlords besieged Hussa at the island of Lindisfarne in c580 but was betrayed and slain.

Aethelfrith, 593-616
Added the neighboring Kingdom of Deira due to a marriage but was slain at the battle of the river Idle.

Edwin of Deira, 616-633
Succeeded to the throne on the victory of river Idle, given to him by king Raedwald of East Angles.

Eanfrith, 633-634
Son of Aethelfrith who acceded the throne on the passing of Edwin, but was slain by the Briton Cadwallon a year later.

Oswald, 634-642
Another son of Aethelfrith, reunited Deira and Bernicia when he succeeded his brother in 634, but he was slain when fighting Penda of Mercia at the battle of Maserfield, near Oswestry, west of Shrewsbury.

Oswiu/Oswy, 642-655
Younger brother of Oswald took the throne after the slaying of his brother, greatest victory at the battle of Winwaed when Penda of Mercia was slain and joining Bernicia and Deira forever to form

Kings of Deira

Aethelfric of Bernicia, 588-593
Possibly a sub-king put on the throne by his son Aethelfrith.

Aethelfrith of Bernicia, 593-617
Became King of Deira through his wife, slain at the battle of the River Idle where Edwin took the throne of Deira.

Edwin, 617-633
Became King of both Deira and Bernicia after victory at the battle of the River Idle. Edwin was slain with his son at the battle of Hatfield chase (Heathfield) by the Briton Cadwallon of Gwyned and Penda of Mercia.

Osric, 633-634
Attempted to hold Deira after the death of Edwin but was slain by the Briton Cadwallon of Gwynedd, whom he was besieging.

Oswald of Bernicia, 634-642
He reunited Bernicia and Deira after he defeated and slew Cadwallon of Gwynedd at the battle on the Deniseburn, known as Heavenfield, near Hexham, but was later slain by Penda of Mercia.

Oswine, 642-651
Succeeded Oswald to the throne of Deira but was slain by Gilling in 651 on the orders of Oswiu/Oswy of Bernicia.

Aethelwald, 651-655
Son of Oswald, of Bernicia, possibly a sub-king put in by his uncle or by the Mercians.

King of Northumbria

Oswiu/Oswy, 655-671

Northumbrian Churches

Saint John's Church
Escombe, Nr Bishop Auckland, Durham

Saint Peter's Church
Heysham, Nr Morecombe, Lancashire

Saint Gregory's Minster
Kirkdale, North Yorkshire